What Happened In Between Malachi and Matthew?

Why the intertestamental years matter for Christians today.

During college, a friend asked me a thought-provoking question: “What happened in between the Old and New Testaments?” Somewhat perturbed and feeling the familiar panic of not knowing the answer to a Bible-related question, we turned to the greatest biblical scholar ever, Google. The top result emphatically declared there were 400 years of silence—God didn’t speak, and consequently, there wasn’t much to write home about.

But when I started seminary, I quickly realized that this straightforward explanation didn’t quite hold up. I began encountering terms like “Second Temple Judaism” and discovering ancient texts such as 1 Enoch, The Wisdom of Solomon, and the writings of Ben Sira, and then the draw-dropping moment when I was reading The New Testament’s Epistle of Jude

“It was also about these that Enoch, the seventh from Adam, prophesied, saying, ‘Behold, the Lord comes with ten thousands of his holy ones, to execute judgment on all and to convict all the ungodly of all their deeds of ungodliness that they have committed in such an ungodly way, and of all the harsh things that ungodly sinners have spoken against him.’” - Jude 14–15.

From my reading of the Old Testament, Enoch—the figure in Genesis who "walked with God and then was not”—never utters a word, let alone delivers a prophecy. So where did the Epistle of Jude get this reference? The answer lies in 1 Enoch, a collection of (mind-bending) writings composed in the period between Malachi and Matthew.

My journey into the world of Second Temple Judaism began here. Far from being a time of silence, the intertestamental years were marked by vibrant theological reflection, rich literary activity, and profound cultural shifts. It turns out those so-called “silent years” were anything but. So here is a short introduction to the history and writings of the Second Temple period and why it matters for Christians today.

The History (Stay With Me):

The story between the Testaments begins towards the end. With the completion of the Second Temple under Ezra and Nehemiah, the era of Second Temple Judaism begins, and the Old Testament essentially closes up shop. Here’s a simplified (and admittedly brief) timeline of the events that took place between the Testaments. I hesitated to include a timeline because I don’t want to be “that guy”, but I think it provides helpful context.

Timeline:

• 539-332 BCE: The Persians take control from the Babylonians (Ezra-Nehemiah)

• 332-63 BCE: The Greeks (Hellenists) come into town and take over

  • 305-198 BCE: Ptolemaic Kingdom (Greeks in Egpyt) in control of the region

  • 198-63 BCE: Seleucid Empire (Greeks in the West) take control

    • 175-164 BCE: Antiochus IV moves to eradicate Judaism (2 Mac. 4:7-10)

    • 167-160 BCE: Judas Maccabeus the Maccabean Revolt (1 Macc. 2)

• 140-63 BCE: The Hasmoneans take over and battle with Seleucids for control

• 63 BCE: The Romans come into town

• 37-4 BCE: Herod the Great (Matt 2)

• 4 BCE-39 AD: Antipas, also called Herod (Luke 13:31; Matt 14:6-11; Mark 6:21-28)

• 4-6 BCE: Christ is Born¹

Hopefully, the timeline illustrates just how unstable the Holy Land was during this period—marked by persecution, displacement, conflict, resistance, and, at times, religious compromise. It was within this volatile and ever-shifting context that the body of literature known as Second Temple Judaism emerged, offering insight into the theological, cultural, and societal dynamics that shaped the world into which Jesus was born.

The Writings

During this period, God’s people were actively writing, thinking, and exchanging ideas in ways that might surprise us. While it’s not worthwhile or even possible to list every work here, scholars have uncovered thousands of manuscripts from the Second Temple Period. You’ve likely heard of the Dead Sea Scrolls, undeniably the most remarkable manuscript discovery in modern history. These texts were first found in the 1940s by Bedouin shepherds (shout out to my boy Muhammed edh-Dhib), leading to the discovery of over 15,000 fragments and scrolls meticulously preserved by a Jewish sect(s) that retreated to the desert. Other significant works, like 2 Baruch or the extensive writings of Philo and Josephus, remain lesser-known to many Christians yet offer invaluable insight into this formative era.

So here’s a quick breakdown of the types of work:

The Apocrypha

This category includes works like 1–2 Maccabees and The Wisdom of Solomon, which are found in the Catholic Bible but excluded from the Protestant and Hebrew Bibles. The apocryphal texts span various genres—legends, apocalypses, ethical teachings, and more. However, it's important to note that the term Apocrypha is often used more broadly, sometimes encompassing works like 1 Esdras and 3–4 Maccabees, which are not included in the Catholic canon.

Rewritten Scripture

These works, such as 1 Enoch and the writings of Philo and Josephus, often take key figures or events from the Old Testament and expand, interpret, or reimagine them. Through these texts, we get a glimpse of how Jewish communities during the Second Temple period engaged with their sacred history.

Tales

While tales appear in both of the previous categories, they deserve recognition as a distinct genre. Texts like Judith and Susanna tell compelling stories that illustrate faith, perseverance, and divine intervention—offering both entertainment and moral instruction to their audiences.²

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The sheer volume of texts produced during this period should intrigue any curious Christian—not just for the quantity but for the remarkable literary imagination displayed in these writings. For instance, the genre of apocalyptic literature, which we encounter in the Book of Revelation, appears to have originated during this time. 1 Enoch is perhaps the most famous and likely the earliest example of this genre, but other works, like 4 Ezra and the Sibylline Oracles, also contribute to this literary tradition.

This period also saw a surge in pseudepigraphical works—texts written under the names of well-known biblical figures, like Moses or Job. While the motivations behind this practice are, at best, complex, the result is a diverse collection of writings that reflect how deeply the Jewish people wrestled with their identity, faith, and the workings of God during this era.

So, the label “400 years of silence” is misleading. God's people were far from silent—they were an exceptionally chatty bunch, producing not just a handful of texts but an entire library of theological, historical, and imaginative works. While we, as Protestants, might say that God didn’t speak in terms of canonical revelation during this time, He was actively moving within His people’s story.

Now, all of this might seem like an interesting historical curiosity (at least to me), but why does it matter for Christians in the 21st century? The answer lies in the New Testament itself. The authors of the New Testament were deeply influenced by the literary and theological movements of this long intertestamental period. This shouldn’t surprise us; just imagine how much we have been influenced by Christianity in the last 400 years! From apocalyptic imagery to messianic expectations, the fingerprints of these writings are found throughout the New Testament, helping us better understand the world into which Jesus was born and the theological conversations that shaped the earliest Christian communities.

The New Testament and Its Influences

For some, the idea that the New Testament authors were "influenced" by the movements of the Second Temple period might feel unsettling. But let’s consider a modern example: The Ruthless Elimination of Hurry by John Mark Comer—a book that has sold like hotcakes in recent years. What makes this book so compelling? Beyond Comer’s engaging and relatable writing style, he takes timeless biblical principles and applies them to the modern-day struggle with busyness and the pervasive mindset of “never enough.” In doing so, Comer is influenced by his cultural context, reading Scripture with an eye toward the challenges of our time. And he’s not alone; we all do this to some extent. We look to Scripture to make sense of our present reality, often relying on pastors, scholars, and spiritual mentors to help us bridge the ancient and the modern.

Of course, Comer and other contemporary writers aren’t producing Scripture, but the principle remains. The New Testament authors were writing within the context we've been exploring—shaped by the beliefs, expectations, and theological conversations of the preceding 400 years. It’s reasonable, then, to recognize that these authors inherited and promoted many of the ideas, questions, and hopes that permeated Jewish thought during the Second Temple period.

So let’s look at some examples:

1. We’ve all heard phrases like, “Jesus’ disciples didn’t want a dead Messiah; they expected a Messiah who would take Jerusalem by force!” And that’s true (John 6:15; Acts 1:6). But where did this expectation originate? While the Old Testament certainly hints at a coming Messiah (e.g., 2 Samuel 7; Psalm 2:2; Isaiah 9:6–7), this more developed vision of a conquering, politically powerful Messiah gains significant traction during the Second Temple period—particularly in works like the Wisdom of Solomon, and some of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Given the political and social upheaval of that era, it makes sense that messianic hopes evolved toward a figure who would bring tangible, forceful liberation.

2. Take, for example, the Transfiguration account. In Matthew 17:10, Peter asks, “Why then do the scribes say that Elijah must come first?” Many have tried to pinpoint this idea in the Old Testament, but it doesn’t actually appear there. As Peter notes, this belief came from the scribes, and we find it explicitly referenced in several Second Temple texts, including the Dead Sea Scrolls.

3. Or compare the Epistle to the Romans with the Second Temple work Wisdom of Solomon when Paul uses the metaphor of the potter and clay in relation to divine sovereignty.

“Has the potter no right over the clay, to make out of the same lump one vessel for honorable use and another for dishonorable use.” - Rom. 9:21.

“A potter kneads the soft earth and laboriously molds each vessel for our service,
fashioning out of the same clay both the vessels that serve clean uses and those for contrary uses” - Wisdom of Solomon 15.

4. Lastly, compare the Epistle of James with the Second Temple work Sirach:

“let every person be quick to hear, slow to speak, slow to anger.” - Jas 1:19.

“Be quick to hear, and utter a reply patiently.” - Sir. 5:11

While James could certainly be building off of Proverbs or Ecclesiastes, the closest parallel is not the Old Testament but a Second Temple work.³

I’ll stop here, but there are many, many more. These few examples illustrate how the writings and expectations from the intertestamental period permeated the minds of Jesus’ earliest followers—helping us better understand the theological landscape of the New Testament. For too long, many conservative scholars have dismissed discussions about the significance of the Apocrypha and other Second Temple works in understanding the New Testament. Meanwhile, some liberal scholars have enthusiastically claimed that these writings form the very foundation of the New Testament itself. Both positions, however, represent extremes—and miss the mark. The relationship between these texts and the New Testament isn’t one of wholesale dependence or complete irrelevance. Instead, the Second Temple period provides crucial historical and theological context, helping us grasp the intellectual and spiritual environment in which the New Testament was written.

So, why does understanding Second Temple Judaism matter for Christians today? Here are three key reasons:

1. A Deeper, More Nuanced Reading of the New Testament
Even a basic grasp of Second Temple Judaism can help us read the New Testament with greater depth and a deeper appreciation for the human context of Scripture. Take, for example, The Epistle of Jude, where we encounter the mysterious dispute over Moses’ body (Jude 9). If we rely solely on the Old Testament, we might be confused—after all, there’s no such story there. But when we recognize that there was speculation during the Second Temple period about Moses’ body, there is no need to panic. Instead, we can appreciate how Jude was engaging with ideas familiar to his audience, reminding us that there’s often more going on.

2. A Fuller Understanding of Christ’s Historical Context
Gaining insight into the period between Malachi and Matthew helps us better understand the historical and cultural reality into which Jesus was born. Calling these centuries the "400 years of silence" robs us of the opportunity to appreciate the political, religious, and social upheaval of the time. It was into this messy, turbulent, and expectation-filled world that Christ entered—bringing clarity, hope, and fulfillment to a people desperate for God’s intervention.

3. A Grounded Confidence in the New Testament
While learning about these writings might initially cause some Christians to feel uneasy, it’s essential to maintain perspective. The influence of the Old Testament on the New Testament far outweighs that of Second Temple literature (OT is referenced about 250x in the NT). Yes, the New Testament writers were familiar with these Second Temple texts, and occasionally, we see their fingerprints. But the overwhelming theological, narrative, and moral foundation of the New Testament comes from the Old Testament.

In many ways, this dynamic isn’t too different from today. We live in a time with more commentaries, novels, children’s Bibles, movies, and plays about Scripture than we could ever consume. These works inevitably shape how we imagine and understand Scripture. Personally speaking, I can’t read Exodus without hearing Val Kilmer’s voice from The Prince of Egypt.

Understanding these intertestamental texts doesn’t undermine the New Testament; it enriches it—offering us a clearer, more vivid picture of the world in which Jesus lived, taught, died, and rose again.

For those feeling extra nerdy and eager for the next steps, here are a few resources to check out:

• Greg Lanier, Apocryphal Prophets and Athenian Poets: Noncanonical Influences on the New Testament
  This book may feel a bit advanced (and pricey), but Lanier does the heavy lifting—outlining almost every possible instance of Second Temple’s influence on the New Testament.

• Read the Apocrypha
  These texts are widely accessible online and can provide fascinating context for New Testament references. For a helpful companion, check out David A. deSilva’s helpful introduction, which offers clear explanations and historical insights.

• James C. VanderKam, An Introduction to Early Judaism
  If you're looking for a concise, approachable introduction to the world of Second Temple Judaism, this is a fantastic place to start.

Notes:

1. See: James C. VanderKam’s An Introduction to Early Judaism.

2. See: Daniel M. Gurtner’s Introducing the Pseudepigrapha of Second Temple Judaism and VanderKam’s An Introduction to Early Judaism.

3. I am indebted to Greg Lanier’s work for these examples. For 1,000 pages on this topic, see: Apocryphal Prophets and Athenian Poets: Noncanonical Influences on the New Testament by Gregory R. Lanier